Patrolling the border

Abstract

At a critical moment in the late eighteenth century, Muskogee Creek Indians faced the prospect of dispensing with their indigenous form of government based on the political autonomy of each Creek town. Ultimately, however, they chose to retain their indigenous government in altered form. Georgia continually encroached on Creek borders forcing Muskogees into a conversation about the nature of political leadership that hinged on what kind of government could best protect Muskogee liberty, territory, and sovereignty. Some favored a powerful central government, but most preferred the autonomy of every Creek town, or talwa. Under assault from multiple quarters, Creeks experimented with state-like political solutions such as the diplomacy of elite headmen and skilled figurehead executives. Most importantly, Creek warriors launched over a thousand raids along their contested border, actions best understood as robust border patrol. Such innovations drew on indigenous political ideals, and, for a time, effectively stalled American expansion. Neither Creek nor Georgia leaders, however, exercised state control over their people and their territory. White Georgians exaggerated the ferocity of Creek raids and crafted a political narrative they used to justify their own violence and land taking. When Creeks and Georgians raided each other’s communities, they challenged higher political authorities, causing long-lasting internal political conflict in both societies and pushing both reluctant polities closer to statehood.